I have often been wondering why horses are so often kept in small individual stalls. Why they cannot live in a herd with other horses. In the Netherlands it is often because of space restrictions But the common explanations were: the horse is too expensive to risk injuries or the horse is in training and needs to be free of injuries for the next show. I can understand the underlying concerns, but so far I was not sure if that is really the right way to go. This May issue of the Equine Veterinary Journal has published a recent study from Switzerland. The research collected data from almost 3000 horses to record the prevalence of injuries from kicking and biting and to develop preventive strategies.

It is a horse’s nature to avoid direct conflict. They do that by establishing a long-lasting dominance hierarchy within their herd. Everyone knows their place and ranks are rarely question through fights. Mere aggressive gestures maintain the order. Not only are aggressive confrontations are not only stressful but more importantly would deplete energy reserves, pose health risks and possibly separate individuals from the safety of their herd. Therefore aggressive behavior is seldom seen in free-ranging horses. If they do fight they more often bite then kick. Biting is offence behavior; kicking usually only defense.

In the above mentioned study housing systems as well as horse use and breed were investigated in correlation to biting and kicking injuries. 70% of the recorded horses are stabled individually, which almost always included a few hours on pasture or paddocks with other horses. 30% of the horses permanently live in a herd. When compared to all injuries that the owners of these horses reported, only 5.6% were from biting or kicking. On average 1.7% of the horses were bitten or kicked. That number did not differ between individually stabled horses and those living in a group.

Also the use of horses, for sport or pleasure, did not influence the occurrence of bites or kick bruises. The trait that did however seem to be a risk factor was the breed. Warmbloods and Thoroughbreds showed 4.3 more signs of bites or kicks than other horses (mostly pony breeds). The differences in temperament between different breed however are probably not new to horse owners. What seems peculiar is the fact that horses that are only in a group of other horses for a few hours per day and stabled individually the rest of the time, showed just as much bruises as horses that live in a herd day and night. Bites and kicks in these horses are probably due to frequent group changes. And even if the group is the same, not being together continuously requires horses to determine their hierarchy over and over again, which leads to some fighting and therefore injuries. Some (sport) horses that are usually stabled individually are then brought into situations where they personal space is invaded all of a sudden, such as in a trailer, alleyway in a barn or a warm up arena. These situations can cause horses to display aggressive (defensive behavior). Nowadays injuries are also often more serious than in wild horses. Iron or Steel shoes on most horses today causes much more damage than a kick from a horse that is barefooted.

As a result of this research the scientists offer suggestions of preventive measures. A consistent group and large turn-out areas are key and most natural for horses. Sometimes in the wild horses will fight over limited food or water. Therefore ample feeding opportunities or even spaces for individual feeding can prevent aggressive behavior. Since frequent group changes are stressful for the horses, group housing is not recommended for sale barns, boarding or training stables. If group changes are necessary to introduce a new horse for example, slow changes, maybe introducing the horse over a fence is advisable. And of course considering the most significant result of the study: Remember to consider the temperaments of different breeds.

I could bet that more horses get sick from wrong feeding – or other sick methods we have to treat them – than from being with buddies on the pasture.

Reference:
JM Knubben, A Frst, L Gygax and M Stauffacher (2008), “Bite and kick injuries in horses: Prevalence, risk factors and prevention”, Equine Veterinary Journal 2008, vol. 40

A major part of this review is the treatment of foals and how different strategies affect their later lives. In nature mares leave the herd 24 hours before they give birth. And five days after the foal is born they prevent any contact of other horses to their foal. Probably anything that could disrupt the bond that is being formed between her and her baby. However, the majority of horses does not live in the wild but is kept and used by humans. Many behaviors that were necessary in nature are now partly useless. They are fed and protected from dangers. Not only are they protected from predators, now they are also supposed to trust one – the human. A big change. The veterinarian Dr. Miller developed in 1991 a method, that is supposed to help horses to trust people without fear. The so-called “Imprinting”. Imprinting involves training sessions during which the foal is sensitized and de-sensitized to different cues and things, respectively. The first training session already happens during the first 30 minutes after birth, before the first suckling. Different studies however do not show continuous positive results. A study by the French scientist Hausberger observed 170 at different farms in Brittany, France. The results showed that most horses which were only handled at weaning and in the following year were calm and relaxed towards people. Contrary to the horses that were handled intensively (also imprinting) or not handled at all after weaning, which often reacted nervous and frightened when being approached by humans. For the researches this already gives a clue as to which one is a suitable strategy.

A turning point therefore seems to be the time of weaning. In fact, ethology (science of behavior) often connects behavioral abnormalities, also called stereotypies, with bad weaning strategies. Because again, the common weaning practice differs from horses in the wild. In nature foals are weaned when the new foal is born, which means after about a year. The most breeders however wean their youngstock between four and six months after birth. Not all, but some foals develop stereotypies and/or stomach ulcers as a result of weaning, caused by stress and the change in feed. Neither have ever been observed in feral (semi-wild) horses. To make parting from their dam easier for foals practices like gradual weaning (a few hours per day), weaning in pairs and a suitable environment should be provided – meaning: a paddock or pasture is better than stalls, herds are better than individual housing. Experiences that horses make during weaning can influence learning abilities, aptitude to train and emotionality.

But back to direct handling of foals. Research of the past agrees that methods like imprinting is in no way natural. It causes stress for dam and foal and brings only limited results. In most cases where horses have been compared no significant differences have been found between horses that were handled intensively and those that only experience routine contact for feeding or veterinary check-ups. Sometimes the former even reacted more hesitant towards people.

An obvious positive experience is every one involving food. Usually those are the routine experiences during feeding time every day. Direct contact with the foal is not even necessary. Much more effective seems a good relationship towards the dam. Feeding and stroking a relaxed dam is exemplary for the foal and results in calmer and more relaxed horses. Another experiment studied the effects of passive persons on foals. When a motionless person was standing in a distance to the foal, it usually soo approached the person without fear. This however was not the case with foals that had been handled intensively before.

There is no one-suits-all recipe for dealing with horses. Humans as well as horses act differently and have different experiences that influence their behavior. The researcher however come to the conclusion that people, much more than horses, still need a lot of training and education about horse behavior. Scientific research cannot rid us of having to spend time with horses, be attentive and learn to understand their language. But research can help us to understand horses’ behavior. Only with that knowledge we can reach a satisfying partnership between man and horse.

*Edit: Of course we are trying to be as objective as possible and show every possible side of a discussion. Therefore we would like to say a few words about Dr. Miller’s reaction towards this and similar academic studies:

He say that 1st Imprinting has not been done the way he recommended. 2nd You cannot expect horse training – at any age – to bring positive results if it is not done right. 3rd He has been gaining experience with newborn foals for 49 years now and has never experienced a failure. And 4th he says that thousands of people have been successful, how powerful are then a reports of someone who wasn’t?

The problems Dr. Miller sees are problems that are always mentioned by scientists within their reports. In fact, they are the problems they daily deal with. Because if not even their set up of research is right, what kind of a chance do they stand to be acknowledged and published (only possible after peer-review)? And if even researchers have problems to follow the instructions, what chance does the average horse owner stand to succeed? The majority of horse owner are no professionals. Mistakes are made everywhere. To give them a method that requires much precision, training and understand is quite risky. That’s why we would like to agree with Dr. Miller on one of his comments: If someone has not studied and fully understood my method it would be better if he/she would not do it at all!*

Reference:
Hausberger, M; Roche, H; Severine, H; Visser, K (2008), “A review of the human-horse relationship“, Applied Animal Behaviour Science 109: pp.1-24, Elsevier Publishing

For a more thorough discussion of this topic we will soon post an article in the category “management”. But as always you can also contact us for further questions.

www.ultimatehorsesite.com

Know what’s normal, so you can tell if something’s wrong.

Pulse

The normal pulse for an adult horse at rest is between 26-40 beats per minute. You can feel the horse’s pulse easily by placing your hand under the horse’s jaw. You can also take the pulse by feeling behind the left elbow, or by putting your ear there, or by feeling behind the horse’s fetlock, at the widest part. Foals have rates between 70-90 beats per minute. More than 60 beats per minute in an adult horse at rest is definitely abnormal. Rates over 80 mean something is REALLY wrong. Heart rates over 200 have been recorded in horses during extreme exercise. A well-conditioned horse can have a rate over 100 during competition and be perfectly fine. However, after a strenuous effort (like running up a hill) the horse should get a short rest until its heart has slowed to about 70 beats per minute.

Respiration

The respiration rate is the number of inhalations (or exhalations) per minute. When you are taking the horse’s respiration rate, remember, DON’T count both. Count either the number of times the horse breathes in, or the number of times it breathes out, not both, or you will have a rate double of what it really is. To measure the horse’s respiration rate, stand back and watch it’s ribs move. If you have a stethoscope, you can listen to the breaths by placing it over the horse’s trachea, located on the underside of the horse’s neck. The normal rate is between 8-16 breaths per minute in resting adult horses. Foals have higher rates, and rates will increase with work, stress, or climate changes.

Temperature

When you take your horse’s temperature, make sure you use a large animal rectal thermometer. These thermometers are extra thick, so they will be less likely to break if dropped. If you have one with a ring on the end, you can attach a small alligator clip with some nylon or fishing string, so the thermometer can be clipped to the horse’s tail when you take it’s temperature. This will keep the thermometer from breaking if the horse swishes its tail and knocks it out.
First, shake the thermometer down. Do this by holding the ring end between your finger and thumb. Shake it downward with short, snapping motions. Do this until the mercury is down to about 95 degrees. How low you shake it does not really matter unless the horse’s temperature is way below normal. If this is the case, shake it all the way down. Lubricate it with petroleum jelly before inserting it.
To take the horse’s temperature, stand on its left side, facing its rear, and set your hip so it is resting against the horse’s leg. Grab the tail with your left hand, about six inches from the root. Hold the thermometer in you right hand. Slowly but firmly raise the tail up and to the side, and insert the thermometer. Push it in gently until only about half an inch is sticking out. Then, clip the alligator clamp on the horse’s tail hair. Leave the thermometer in for about three minutes. When you remove it, be sure to unclamp the clip first. When you have removed it, wipe it through a few strands of the horse’s tail hair to clean it before you read it.

The normal temperature for a horse is 99.5 to 101.4 degrees F (37.5 to 38.5 degrees C). Foals and yearlings may have higher temperatures, especially if they are nervous. Higher humidity or hotter weather may increase a horse’s temperature. The temperature may also be slightly higher if the horse has just been ridden. Temperatures are usually a degree or so higher in the afternoon than in the evening, so if you are taking your horse’s temperature for several days in a row, try to do it around the same time each day. Horses in new surroundings or around strange people may also have higher temperatures, and the temperature will usually go up a few hours after the horse has eaten. Cold weather or water may lower the horse’s temperature.

Gums and Eyelids

These, and other mucous membranes, are good indicators of the animal’s overall health. The eyelid, also called conjunctivae, should be pink. Red indicates that the eye is irritated, but if the mouth, too, is red, there may be a serious problem affecting the whole body. If the horse has pink skin around the eyes, he may be more sensitive than horses with dark skin. A horse that is short of red blood cells may have pale gums and conjunctivae. A dark red or purplish-blue color is called cyanosis, and indicates a lack of oxygen in the bloodstream. Yellow membranes are called jaundice or icterus. Yellow usually indicates a liver problem. With some diseases, spots of blood may be seen under the membranes. Any odd coloration may indicate a disease, and a vet should check the horse.
Dry membranes may indicate fever, or may be caused by certain drugs (like those given to control symptoms of heaves). Odd odors in the mouth could indicate an infected tooth or other problem.

Appetite

If you feed the same amounts every day, you will be able to tell if your horse’s appetite increases or decreases. Lack of desire to eat usually indicates something’s wrong, especially if your horse is normally an eager eater. If your horse eats only a little one day, be sure to watch him over the next few days. If his appetite continues to decrease, there may be something wrong. Check the horse’s vital signs for abnormalities. Also, be sure to watch your horse’s intake of water. If he stops drinking, or drinks more than normal, something may be wrong. Take note of any changes in your horse’s appetite, and be sure to call a vet if something seems wrong.

Behavior

Sudden changes in your horse’s behavior could mean he’s sick. In this case, you need to know your individual horse. Every horse is different, so what is normal for one horse might be quite strange for another. It is hard to tell if your horse is sick by watching his behavior if you don’t know him, and know what is normal for him. Normal really varies from horse to horse. If he’s acting strange, is it because something changed? Did you sell his companion? Did the weather change? Or his feed? Maybe your in a new place, or he’s with new horses?

Some diseases or disorders can be diagnosed by the horse’s behavior or posture. A horse with colic, may, for example, stretch, roll, nip at its sides, act stressed or angry, or sweat alot. A foundered horse will stand with its hind legs up under itself, and its front legs stretched out in front.
Sick horse will assume strange positions or attitudes. They may act cranky, swish their tails, they may act restless, or sleepy. Some horses may have unusual habits, like stretching at feeding time sticking there tongues out. My sister’s mare, when she wants food, will nicker, bang on her stall door twice, then stick her front legs out and stretch until her belly nearly touches the ground. Such behaviors may be normal routine for your horse. But if they are accompanied by any other symptoms, they may indicate sickness.

Signs of a Healthy Horse

*Hair is shiny and sleek
*No grass belly can be seen
*Muscles are well fit
*Horse shows signs of interest in surroundings
*Horse acts energetic
*Horse is not too thin or fat
*Normal riding does not produce sweating or heavy breathing
*Horse does not act tender footed and walks normally
*Horse eats all he is given
*The horse has bright eyes, alert ears, and normal vital signs
*The horse does not act tired, sluggish, or lethargic
*The horse has a thick or shiny mane and tail
*The horse has strong hooves that are shaped normally

To keep horses on pasture is a wonderful intention. And owners would hardly anticipate any problems with this most natural way of caring for their beloved animals. However, not all circumstances are optimal. Horses can ingest sand when being fed hay from the ground or while foraging on overgrazed pastures. 5 to thirty percent of all cases of colics are sand colics; Caused by the accumulation of sand in the intestine. Sand in the large intestine can also result in chronic diarrhea and weight loss. Up until now the common preventive strategy was to place the hay off sandy ground: in a hay net, feed rack or on rubber mats. But a recent study conducted at the Colorado State University proposes an alternative. A mix of prebiotics, probiotics and psyllium (a plant seed) proved effective to clear the equine intestine of these possibly harmful sand accumulations. Psyllium is used for horses and humans as a bulk laxative. The researchers from Colorado fed small amounts of this agent combined with pre- and probiotics to healthy horses over a period of 35 days. The horses’ feces were collected and tested for sand before and during the trial. From day four to day 31 of the supplementation the sand excretion was significantly increased. For all tested horses the sand output was about 2.5 times higher during the treatment than before. The mechanisms of sand output from the intestine are not entirely understood, yet. The results of this trial however, propose that the probiotics and prebiotics reduce intestinal inflammation caused by the sand while the psyllium increases motility in the large intestine. Although this treatment is still to be tested on horses that have previously been affected by severe sand accumulations, the study suggests that this mixture can be used as a prophylactic treatment.

Reference: “Fecal Sand Clearance Is Enhanced with a Product Combining Probiotics, Prebiotics, and Psyllium in Clinically Normal Horses” Journal of Equine Veterinary Medicine, Vol 28, No 2 (2008)

Have you ever stood before shelves of horse feed and supplements feeling overwhelmed by the choices? At times it seems the variety of available products are designed to appeal to the owner rather than the animal. But many feeds and supplements are actually very beneficial. The challenge for horse owners is weeding out the useless from the useful. Some supplements are justified for horses with a deficiency or other medical problem verified by a veterinarian. A surprisingly large number, however, are not sold to solve an apparent problem per se but rather they claim to enhance a horse’s athletic performance. Recently, three researchers presented their findings from more than 20 years of research into the claims made by many of these feeds and supplements. And here’s what they had to say.

Feeds for Energy
The majority of feeds and supplements claim to improve the horse’s energy metabolism and to delay of the onset of fatigue. The most common type of feed to achieve this is anything that delivers energy to the organism. Energy is not necessarily a nutrient, rather, it regulates the capacity to work. It is provided by hay containing fiber, by grains containing starch and sugar (carbohydrates) or by oil containing fat. The basis of every horse’s diet needs to be roughage. This has always been the main source of nutrients and energy for horses in the wild and that is what the horse’s gut is designed to digest. The feed of choice to provide a horse with energy needed above maintenance level are cereals that are high in carbohydrates.

Manipulating the Carbohydrate Supply
A well-known method practiced in human sports is the application of high-carbohydrate diets or oral intake of glucose. Carbohydrates are stored as glycogen in the muscle – where it is needed for energy – and in the liver. Increased feeding of sugar- and starch-rich cereals is expected to increase the glycogen storage in the skeletal muscles. This increased concentration should then delay the time until fatigue sets in.

Although low-glycogen concentration has been associated with decreased performance in horses, little scientific evidence exists for carbohydrate administration to enhance performance. Concerning sports horses, Martine van Tilburg (MSc), equine nutritionist and event rider, finds it rather curious that horses are so well protected in every minute of their lives, yet do not have a dietician, as is common for human athletes.

For horses, there is a problem that has to be kept in mind when feeding carbohydrates. A horse’s digestive system is different from that of humans. It can only deal with a certain amount of sugar and starch. The major part of the intestine, the hind gut, is made to digest fiber. If too many carbohydrates are fed, they will not be digested properly and will turn up in the hind gut, where they change the pH and kill the bacteria intended to digest fiber. This then results in problems like laminitis, colic or diarrhoea.

Supplementing Fat
Since forage feed is crucial for the health of the animal, but substituting too much with concentrates can be dangerous to its health, other alternatives must be found. This is where supplementing oil can play a role. Oil is energy dense and reduces bowel ballast, heat load and, of course, the amount of concentrates that have to be fed. The effects of oil supplementation have been studied on race as well as endurance horses and have in many cases proven effective. Oil not only provides the body with more energy, but also spares the glycogen storages, which are needed for high intensity work (jumping, sprinting, etc.). Further, since energy supplied by oil is released slower and more gradually than the energy provided by concentrates, it may have a calming effect on the horse.

Reduction of Bodyweight‘
Another factor, especially for race and endurance horses, is the amount of weight they carry on their bodies. Less weight means less mass to be moved and therefore, less energy that has to be used. While common sense would probably suggest losing excess fat to solve this problem, a practice used in race horses is to restrict the access to hay on three days prior to a race. This method reduces weight that is carried as bowel ballast, through fiber and fiber-bound water. What it also reduces is heat, which is usually stored by the fiber and poses a disadvantage in a race. However, owners and riders should be careful considering such a method. The intake of roughage is vital and the relationships between bodyweight, performance and metabolism must still be investigated further.

Amino Acids
Hypothetically, an increase in muscle tissue, as well as a delay of fatigue, can be expected from feeding Amino Acids. But research indicates that Amino Acids don’t really provide much benefit to horses – or to humans, for that matter. According to studies of both horses and humans, there is no substantial verification for beneficial effects of amino acid supplements. Nevertheless they are sold for both, claiming to promote gain of muscle tissue.

It’s true that protein, made of different Amino Acids, is important for the growth of muscle and bone in young horses. “Adult horses, as they are fully grown and matured, do not need much protein anymore,” van Tilburg said. But she warns against feeding too much protein, especially to horses running long distances, because it negatively affects the delicate mechanisms of water intake and excretion. According to studies, in man as well as in horses, there is no substantial verification for beneficial effects of amino acid supplements. Nevertheless they are sold for both, claiming to promote gain of muscle tissue.

Other Supplements
In general, supplements, to be effective, must be absorbed from the gut, then be transported to the target tissue, then improve the tissue function and lastly improve the performance. An increase of Creatine and L-Carnitine in the horse’s muscles cells, for example, is supposed to boost the animal’s energy metabolism in different ways. L-Carnitine is already present in a high concentrations in the horse’s muscle and plays a key role in the oxidation of fat as well as carbohydrates. Therefore, it was proposed that an increase in the concentration would improve exercise performance by improving the utilisation of fat and carbohydrates. Creatine is one of the most widely used supplements in human sport. Research shows that it is rapidly absorbed by the gut of both humans and dogs. However, research has shown that both Creatine and L-Carnitine are poorly absorbed by the gut of the horse and did not show any increase in content of the muscle tissue.

Further Concerns
When considering feeds and supplements, the issue is not only whether or not they provide the benefits they claim, but also an issue is manufacturer. Many manufacturers fail to give the detailed analysis that is required for medications and many do not even meet the claims on labels. The bottom line is that some supplements are beneficial, providing necessary nutritional benefits for some horses. But research indicates that most don’t improve athletic performance as their manufacturers claim. There is limited scientific support for these claims. Van Tilburg, one of the researchers in these studies, stressed that any supplement the horse doesn’t need is putting an unnecessary stress on the horse. Riders should invest in high quality hay, concentrates if needed, and most importantly proper training for the particular event and they will certainly have a much higher chance of success. For more information on the research mentioned here, check out these sources below.

References: Geor, R J (2006), “The role of nutritional supplements and feeding strategies in equine athletic performance”, Equine and Comparative Exercise Physiology 3 (3); 109-119 Harris, P A and Harris, R C (2005), “Ergogenic potential of nutritional strategies and substances in the horse”, Livestock Production Science 92 (2005); 147-165

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If you contact us before February 2008 you actually have a real chance of being invited

As you all know riding is based on tradition! Sometimes it only reminds us of earlier days, the way our ancestors have lived and how they have used the available resources. These may not have an effect on the modern life nowadays and sometimes the old methods have no use anymore.

This is the case with branding of foals. In former times the brand was the only possibility to identify animals. Today other methods of identification of animals exist. In this article I will explain what exactly happens when a foal is branded and give alternatives.

Definition: Branding

Branding means that a new born horse receives a sign of the breeding association the foal belongs to. The foal must be at least 14 days of age; in general the branding is done at an age between four month and one year. The brand consists of the sign of the breeding association and a number, which is the 12^th and 13^th digit of the identification number the horse receives when it is registered. This sign is burned, with a heated iron, into the first layer of the skin of the foals left hip. The iron stays on the foal’s buttock for only a few seconds, but burns the skin in a way that the sign can be seen lifelong. The number brand will be entered into the pedigree paper or the birth certificate.

Requirements

The precondition before a foal can receive a brand is that both parents are registered in the stud-book within the year of covering or at the latest in the year of birth of the foal (Verband der Züchter des Oldenburger Pferdes e.V.; September 2007). Therefore the parents have to meet the standards and requirements of the specific association.

Foals that do not fulfil the requirements and will therefore not get a pedigree paper (only a birth certificate), will only receive the double-digit number brand, when at least one parent is registered in the studbook within the appropriate year.

The notification of foaling must be announced to the breeding association within 3 months after birth of the foal (Verband der Züchter des Oldenburger Pferdes e.V.; September 2007). The breeder has to be a member at the breeding association as well.

When sending the notification of foaling to the association the breeders can state a favoured location, for the foals branding. Every association has set dates and places for brandings, where the breeders can bring their foals. In most cases these locations are training or riding stables, studs or breeding associations.

First step: Registration

The first step is the registration of the foal, where colour and markings are described. All markings are drawn in a graph, while they are simultaneous documented in words to ensure an easy identification. An important document is the birth certificate, where the date of birth, sex, colour and parents are documented.

If the mare is not registered until then, this will have to happen first.

After registration the breeder receives the number combination of the 12^th and 13^th digit of the identification number, which he will have to bring to the branding act.

Image of a diagram (Graphic 3)

Second step: premium

The second step is the judgement of the foals. This is only possible for foals whose mothers are registered at the main studbook of the association. At first each foal is judged running freely in the ring with its dam; then about six foals are presented together (Verband der Züchter des Oldenburger Pferdes e.V.; September 2007). Thereby the exterior and movements of the foals are judged. If the foal meets the requirements of the association it receives a so-called “foal premium”. When selling the foal this is of importance, because it indicates the quality of it. In colts it can be distinguished between animals that are allowed to receive a stallion license or not. Foals of high quality will be selected for an elite auction. In average about 60-70% of the foals receive a premium. The permission for receiving a brand is not dependant on the award of a premium.

Third step: branding

Following the premium the foals are branded. During the procedure the owner holds the foal at halter while it stands close to the mare. The heated iron is then pressed onto the foals’ hindquarter. Because this happens in only a few seconds, the iron is normally removed before the foal recognizes it and tries to escape. The breeder should then allow a few jumps to give the feeling of freedom.

After branding the event for breeder and foal is over.

The question which arises is if it is justified to cause pain to the animal only for a brand. But does the branding really cause pain to the foal?

During the branding process the iron burns only the first layer of the skin, when used correctly the subcutis stays sound and deeper layers are not affected (Steinmann, 2007). The pain the foals suffer from is only light and of short duration. It is not comparable with the pain human beings feel when burning a part of the body (Steinmann, 2007). The foal will not suffer from constant or longer lasting pain.

Therefore the law for animal welfare which states that no one is allowed to cause pain, diseases or damage without a reasonable cause to an animal (Tierschutzgesetz; 2007) is not violated. The statement, animal-rights activists come up with, that branding of foals is cruelty caused without a reason, is therefore not valid. Regarding the law for animal welfare the branding of foals is not prohibited (Steinmann, 2007).

Branding of foals (Graphic 4)

The brand allows an easy identification of the breeding association for every person by eye. In fact this comes with a promotion effect for the concerned associations, it seems logical that the associations are not interested in ending the branding process. On the other hand it should be said that after a few years about 50 per cent of the brands are not clearly readable anymore (Bartz, 2007: 54-56).

Although the breed of the horse can be identified, the brand gives no exact information about the horse. The two numbers are indeed included in the identification number (12^th and 13^th digit), but as they are only two an indefinite number of horses receiving the same number combination. For an exact identification of the horse a blood test and a DNA analysis through a sample of hair must be accomplished, which cannot be done in a few seconds (Söhnel, 2007). In conclusion: the brand gives no advantage in identifying the animal.

While participating in the branding of foals, I recognized the high interest of people. Visitors who often have no contact with horses in daily life, come to watch this procedure. Especially at small locations the day of branding is an event of high significance for the people from town. Through this highlight they get close to horses which maybe lead to more interest in the animals at after all.

Statements like: “The procedure of branding was not that painful for the foal as I thought it would be.” are made (Söhnel, 2007). In this case the visit of this event clarifies wrong beliefs of visitors. A lot of people have only heard or read about the cruelty of branding foals but never saw it with their own eyes, and prejudice arose.

Some might say that the whole event is stress for the foal which could be avoided. At some locations over 100 foals are registered, which sometimes comes with overcrowded places. I agree to the fact that stress should be avoided for the foals. Especially young animals get easily confused about what happens around them. But in my point of view it is not the act of branding, which causes stress, it is more the handling of the foals. Therefore the guilt must be pasted over to the breeder/owner himself. During the branding process the foal stands close to its mother and until the foal can react to the heated iron it is quickly removed and the foal gets its freedom. This is only possible if trust exist between breeder and foal. If the foal did not get used to a halter and leading, it does not know how to react. Consequently the reaction will be fear and flight, and when the handler then tries to prevent this he often has to use much more violence. I have often recognized breeders standing and talking to each other while they lead their horses, hence not paying attention. For foals it is not justifiable to keep them away from their mothers. Sometimes it happens that the foals fall down, because the handler does not release the pressure on the halter at the right moment. A lot of handlers handle their foals as they would handle adult horses, without noticing that foals do not have much experience or routine with human beings and only react instinctively. This carelessness of the handlers causes stress to the animals.

To ensure as less stress as possible for the foals the organizer of the event must ensure enough room for the number animals that are expected, to prevent fights between the horses.

Summarized I can say that a lot of stress can be removed through correct handling of the animals.

The most common alternative to the branding is chipping. In the Netherlands and France all horses must be chipped since 2004. The precursor is developed in Germany; all trotters are chipped as foals since 1992 (Bartz, 2007: 54-56). For thoroughbreds chips are used and a lot of other breeding associations also already use the chip as an alternative identification.

When being “chipped”, foals are injected a transponder into the neck muscles on the left side. It consists out of an electronic programmed microchip with antenna, made of carbon that has the size of a rice grain. The chip includes an identification number. This is a 15-digit-code, which is selected randomly (Bartz, 2007: 54-56). Each number exists only one time worldwide. Three numbers of the code indicate the manufacturer, three others the country. At the particular breeding association this number is saved with all other documents about the horse, therefore an exact identification is possible. But no one is able to indicate the breeding association the horse belongs to by pure sight anymore. To determine the number, a reader is necessary; but once read the animal’s whole life can be traced back. The question arising now is if the pain the foals feel at receiving the injection is less when being branded? According to the statement of Dr. Steinmann, an equine veterinarian, the penetration of the injection is less painful than the branding and can be compared to the twitch humans feel when receiving an injection (Steinmann, 2007).

Since a few months a new form of a transponder exists, consisting of medically proven biopolymers, which should be gentler for the tissue (Bartz, 2007: 54-56). Dr. Steinmann stated that these are non-allergic materials and the animal does not feel its presence (Steinmann, 2007). The transponder does not have a negative impact on the horse, has no radiation, is not palpable, and cannot be exactly located through x-ray or ultrasound (Bartz, 2007: 54-56). Therefore the transponder stays the whole life in the animal’s body and can only be operational removed.

But with “chipping” a risk of placing the injection wrongly exists. First of all it can cause infections and secondly when injected too close to the surface the chip could slide into the upper skin (Steinmann, 2007). Does the foal feel comfortable during the treatment and correction of these faults? Rather not. But does this give an indication of whether to use or not use a chip?

Considering the health of the animal both methods are maintainable (Steinmann, 2007). The Federation Equestrè Nationale (FN) in Germany has tested the transponder for its safety and applicability. A manipulation of the transponder is impossible and only five out of 10.000 chips loose its capacity (Bartz, 2007: 54-56). The veterinarian I have spoken to stated that the branding of foals could not be seen as a cruelty act. He personally argued for the branding, because of the easy classification to the breeding associations (Steinmann, 2007). Regarding the advantages one cannot be indicated as account for more.

Since 2006 a new European regulation for the use of transponder identification should become effective, but the doubts of different breeding associations have rescheduled it (Bartz, 2007: 54-56). The fear that the chip replaces the brand is unnecessary; the transponder should ease the identification of the horse, while the brand is the marketing of the association and is on this note permitted (Bartz, 2007: 54-56). A combination of branding and chipping is only of advantage, because it secures the exact identification of the horse and is identifiable for laypersons as well.

References

• Söhnel, Günther; Brennbeauftragte des Verbandes der Züchter des Oldenburger Pferdes e.V. (25.08. 2007), personal communication
• Dr. Steinmann, Holger; Veterinarian (27.08. 2007), personal communication
• Tierschutzgesetz; 2007; Erster Abschnitt; Grundsatz; § 1
• Verband der Züchter des Oldenburger Pferdes e.V.; Breeding-Foals-Registration; New Voice GmbH, Oldenburg; [online] (cited on September 17th, 2007) Available from <URL:http://www.oldenburger-pferde.com/horses/index_36.php>
• Dr. Bartz, Jürgen; August 2007; PferdeService: Medizin: Mikrochips als „Personalausweis“; Pferdesport International; p.54- 56; Ausgabe 19
• Graphic 1: http://www.royal-windsor-horse-show.co.uk/images/tradestands/OL-Brandzeichen-Logo.gif
• Graphic 2: http://www.equi-info.de/seiten/brandzeichen/han-wb.gif
• Graphic 3: Verband der Züchter des Oldenburger Pferdes e.V.; Breeding-Foals-Registration; New Voice GmbH, Oldenburg; [online] (cited on September 17th, 2007) Available from <URL:http://www.oldenburger-pferde.com/horses/index_36.php>
• Graphic 4: Branding of foals, march 2006, private picture; Verband der Züchter des Oldenburger Pferdes e.V.; Breeding-Foals-Registration; New Voice GmbH, Oldenburg; [online] (cited on September 17th, 2007) Available from <URL:http://www.oldenburger-pferde.com/horses/index_36.php>

Tennessee walking horses are the fastest growing horse breed in the US (Nicodemus and Holt 2007) but are more known because of hitting the headlines in 2006 when the National Celebration show ended before even a champion was crowned. The reason was the violation of the Horse Protection Act (HPA) by several participants. (Ryder 2006) This act was established by the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). This act is a law that ‘prohibits horses that have been subjected to a practice called soring from participating in auctions, exhibitions, sales, or shows. The HPA also prohibits drivers from transporting sored horses to or from any of these events.’(USDA 2005)

graphic 1

Soring in this case are practices that are used to enhance the horse to show its gait more intensively. These practices are inhuman and cruel e.g. injections or application of chemicals and mechanicals to irritate the front hooves or pressure – hoof trimming. (USDA 2005)

At the above mentioned event horses were examined, soring evidence was found and 225 cases of violence recorded. (Ryder 2006)

However, trainers at this event, also those whose horses were not disqualified, were complaining about the inconsistency of the interpretation of the HPA by the inspectors of the USDA. They state that there are several cases in which the same horse has been checked for several days and disciplines and only did not pass the test before its last class which would mean that it should not have taken part in any of the previous classes. Others, are of the opinion that different inspectors get to different conclusions once they have finished their examination e.g. that some are interpreting the existent callus (horny skin) at the horses pasterns as scars from use of chemicals and others may still be of the opinion that this phenomena is caused by the training devices (beads, bangles, rollers and chains) (Nicodemus and Holt 2007) which are still allowed in some classes. (Ryder 2006)

In general the restrictions for training devices are for instance: only one device per limb, the device needs to be smooth and uniform and may not exceed the weight of 6 ounces (1 ounce = 28.349 523 grams; 6 ounces ≈ 170.1 grams). Furthermore there are also restrictions on shoeing e.g. about artificial extensions of toe length which may not exceed 50 % of the natural hoof length, toe length may not exceed the height of the heel by 1 inch (= 2.54 cm) or more, pads must be made of leather, plastic, or other pliant material, the packing which is inserted between pad and hoof may only be of acceptable material. (USDA 2004) If these training devices are harmful is a matter of opinion. Among others the ‘Natural Walking Horse’ represents a group of people interested in the natural gait of the horse meaning the gait it shows without any devices on its limbs. They ‘support exclusively the barefoot and regular shod horses at a regular length of hoofs.’ (The Natural Walking Horse 2007)

To come back to the HPA – Another issue discussed in the sciences at the moment is the basis on which the examinations for identification of signs of soreness are conducted. (Nicodemus and Holt 2007) There are three tests on which the decision of violation of the HPA is based; ‘an evaluation of the horse’s movement, observation of the horse’s appearance during the inspection, and physical examination of the horse’s forelegs from the knee (carpus) to the hoof’. (USDA 2005) The discussion concerns the first examination – the one of the horse’s movement. Although it is known that the Tennessee Walking Horse does perform a symmetrical, four-beat gait with a lateral footfall sequence, a pronounced head nod and an over stride from the hind legs (Friends of Sound Horses 2005) it is not defined what the normal gait of the Tennessee Walking Horse actually is. (Nicodemus and Holt 2007) This leads to the question how inspectors are able to define the unsoundness of a horse whose normal gait is not defined and on what criteria they are basing their decision on. Keeping this fact in mind, it seems plausible that complaints about the subjectivity of the examinations have been made.

Now, in 2007 finally a large research project examining the natural gait of the TWH has been set up. The University of Tennessee (UT) and the Tennessee Walking Horse Breeders’ and Exhibitors’ Association (TWHBEA) are working together on this project which will be started this year and is about to be finished by 2011. It will consist of the analysis of the gait of the today’s TWH in different disciplines with the aid of 3D cameras, genetic markers and the analysis of judges and veterinarians. Moreover, the gait of the natural TWH will be analysed by video tapes made in former times. Afterwards, a comparison of both will be made. (theHorse.com 2007) The outcome will have an influence on judging in general, on the interpretation of soundness (e.g. in the HPA) and also on the breeding sector. The executive director of the TWHBEA stated that horses for breeding are mainly selected according to the performance shown on competitions which in fact could have a negative influence on the preservation of the natural gait of the TWH for which it is famous. If the natural gait would now be found out to differ extremely from the gait of the TWH today, breeding goals could change in trend towards the former natural gait of the TWH. (theHorse.com 2007)

However, it will still take some time until the results could contribute to a more consistent interpretation of the evaluation of the movement of the TWH regarding the HPA examinations.

At this moment the TWHBEA is doing everything to keep the reputation of the TWH up. In 2007 they established an official code of ethics which is basically about the fair treatment of the TWH with regards to its welfare (WHTA 2007). Moreover, a firm from Washington has been committed to help with a more consistent interpretation of the HPA and to help the Walking Horse Trainers Association (WHTA) ‘to move the industry forward’. (NHSC 2007) This includes also the support of new training methods within the industry (NHSC 2007) to tackle the problem where it all began.

Moreover, it is important to realize that the TWH industry in the US differs to the one in Europe and that not only in size. This development is based on two rulebooks which differ in content, especially, regarding devices and shoeing procedures which have an influence on the different classes being part of a competition. Therefore, the THW performance horse, how it is shown in gait videos at the Tennessee Walking Horse Breeders’ and Exhibitors’ Association (TWHBEA) website LINK TO GAIT VIDEO, does not exist in Europe and is only shown in the US at competitions. In Europe, only regular shod horses may compete in shows.

If you want to know more about the TWH the following links could be interesting:

· ‘Has the Walking Horse Industry improved over the past year’ [online] (cited 29.09.07) available from http://www.twhbea.com/News/editorial.htm

· ‘TWHBEA Versatility Rulebook’ [online] (cited 29.09.07) Available from http://www.twhbea.com/pdf/TWHRulebook.pdf

· TWHBEA database [online] Available from http://www.twhbea.com/

References:

Friends of Sound Horses, Inc. (2005) ‘Independent Judges Association Rulebook’, pp. 1-2

The Horse.com (2007) ‘Walking Horse Group, UT to Collaborate on Gait Analysis Study; Funding Sought’, Edited Press Release [online] (Cited, 06.09.07) Available from http://www.thehorse.com

The Natural Walking Horse [online] (Cited, 21.09.07) Available from http://www.naturalwalkinghorses.eu/index.php?lang=en

NHSC – National Horse Show Commission (2007) ‘The Tennessee Walking Horse Questions and Answers’ [online] (cited 28.09.07) Available from http://www.nationalhorseshowcommission.org/Questions_and_Answers.pdf

Nicodemus, MC and Holt, HM (2007) ‘Two-dimensional kinematics of the flat-walking Tennessee Walking Horse yearling’, Equine and Comparative Exercise Physiology 3(2); 101-108

Ryder, E (2006) ‘Walking Horse Trainers, Veterinarians React to Celebration Flap’ [online] (Cited 24.08.07) Available from http://www.thehorse.com

USDA – United States Department of Agriculture (2004) ‘The Horse Protection Act’, Factsheet [online] (Cited 25.09.07) Available from http://www.aphis.usda.gov/animal_welfare/hp/index.shtml

USDA – United States Department of Agriculture (2005) ‘The Horse Protection Act’, Program Aid No. 1827 [online] (Cited 25.09.07) Available from http://www.aphis.usda.gov/animal_welfare/hp/index.shtml

WHTA – Walking Horse Trainers’ Association (2007) ‘Code of ethics’ [online], (cited 28.09.07) Available from http://walkinghorsetrainers.com/images/codeofethics.pdf

Graphics:

Graphic 1; ‘Package of a performance horse’ [online] (Cited 28.09.07) Available from http://www.tennessean.com/assets/pdf/DN4007893.PDF

Graphic 2: ‘A performance horse at a show’ [online] (cited 25.09.07) Available from http://www.magnoliafarmstwh.com/images/CrimsonSkyInAction.jpg

Do you know what a pony actually is? As a newcomer to the equine world and with a Master’s degree in History in my bag, I tend to ask different—and somewhat strange—questions. Although this question may seem a bit silly at first, I believe that at least for the matter of academic research it is important to get this definition straight. As long as it is not clear what a pony actually is, and as long as no definition of a pony is universally accepted, research into ponies is severely hampered.

It is interesting to note that, according to biologists, ponies do not even exist. The species of equus caballus is entirely referred to as horses; ponies do not form a subspecies or any other distinctive form of a horse (Grzimek, 1967-1972; Smithsonian, 1993). This begs the questions whether a useful distinction between horses and ponies can be made at all. It is then—first and foremost—necessary to look at existing definitions to see if they can be used for scientific research.

According to the FEI (2006), ‘a pony is a small horse whose height at the withers (…) does not exceed 148 cm.’ This definition applies to individual horses and does not make exceptions for certain breeds. For example, a Connemara of 148.1 cm would be considered a horse, while an Arab of 148 cm would be considered a pony. This FEI definition is not much of a guideline when it comes to scientific research, because it presupposes that a small difference in height is a sufficient reason for treating horses differently. While it is only fair that a 170 cm Dutch Warmblood is not allowed to compete in a pony jumping competition, it would be strange to assume that ponies should stand on different bedding than horses just because they are smaller (Hunter, 1989).

Veterinarian Jacintha Wilmink has done much research into differences in wound healing between horses and ponies. One of her main conclusions is that wounds of ponies heal faster than those of horses (Wilmink and Van Weeren, 2004). For one particular research project she used the records of over 500 equine patients and divided the patients into horses and ponies ‘dependent on the average adult wither height of the breed. The ponies were defined as <1.48 m, the others as horses’ (Wilmink and Van Weeren, 2004). Wilmink’s definition does not apply to individual ponies but to breeds as a whole, while still making an arbitrary distinction that is solely based on height.

However, it is common use to refer to miniature horses as horses and never as ponies, despite their small size. The same goes for Fjord horses, Icelandic horses and Haflingers. On the other hand, even small Arabs are still seen as horses, while Welsh ponies are always called ponies no matter how tall they are. Often, people not only define ponies by being short, but also by being built differently—shorter legs, larger head, etc.—and having a different character—more stubborn, for example—when compared to horses (Wikipedia, 2007).

Since these distinctions have not yet been proven scientifically, research into this area is long overdue. Therefore, it would be worthwhile to find out if a definition of what a pony is can be based on something other than height.

For my final thesis I will find out the best definition for a pony to be used in academic research: the FEI definition, the definition given by Wilmink, a new definition—yet to be determined—that takes conformation (besides height) and character into account, or the option that it might not be possible to give a useful definition at all. In other words, do ponies exist and, if yes, what are they?

André Hoogendijk, fourth year Equine Management student at Van Hall Larenstein

References

Fédération Equestre Internationale [FEI]. (2006) Rules for Pony Riders and Children. 8^th ed.

Lausanne: FEI.

Grzimek, B. (1967-1972) Grzimeks Tierleben: Enzyklopädie des Tierreichs. Zürich: Kindler

Verlag.

Hunter, L. and Houpt, K.A. (1989) Bedding material preferences of ponies. Journal of Animal

Science 67 (8), 1986-1991.

Smithsonian. (1993) Mammal Species of the World [online]. Available from:

http://nmnhgoph.si.edu/msw/ [accessed 18 May 2007].

Wikipedia. (2007) Pony [online]. Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pony [accessed

18 May 2007].

Wilmink, J.C. and Van Weeren, P.R. (2004) Differences in wound healing between horses

and ponies: application of research results to the clinical approach of equine wounds. Clinical Techniques in Equine Practice 3 (2), 123-133.